Money, Never the Issue: Schooling in Africa

Money, Never the Issue:

Schooling in Africa

Development is always associated with money. You would imagine that poor countries are poor because they do not generate enough wealth for everyone. Well, that is not really like that. However wealthy a country can be, this might not cascade down to all levels of society. Consider the issues a large continent like Africa faces. With the highest GINI coefficient in the world, inequality remains as the biggest challenge. Consider huge regional differences as well. South-Africa, Western Africa and North Africa are almost entirely different worlds. Corruption in the government, but also at high business levels make things even more difficult. Ethnical diversity also poses integration issues, with millenarian families that still retain chieftains ruling all levels and aspects of society. But complaining and blaming it on the government will not make things better.

One wonders sometimes if the authorities really want good things to happen or not. In my previous article "Akamasoa and the most successful economic model in the history of mankind"[1] I described how Father Opeka initially got resistance from the Government in his good deeds to help the people of Madagascar. Consider now the following article "The $1-a-week school"[2]. We would assume that public schools are actually free, but it is now so. They are financed with the money from tax payers. This money goes into a state budget, that is distributed appropriately. Dividing the total amount of budget by the population, you can see how much budget for schooling is allocated to each individual citizen. I am and have always been in favor of public tuition. In has worked out well for developed nations. However, in countries with high levels of corruption, how can we make sure that the money actually goes to those who need it?

The USD 1 a week school  shows as a different alternative, not to collide but to complement the public schooling system. Consider the following comment: "Education in most of the developing world is shocking. Half of children in South Asia and a third of those in Africa who complete four years of schooling cannot read properly. In India 60% of six- to 14-year-olds cannot read at the level of a child who has finished two years of schooling.

Most governments have promised to provide universal primary education and to promote secondary education. But even when public schools exist, they often fail. In a survey of rural Indian schools, a quarter of teachers were absent. In Africa the World Bank found teacher-absenteeism rates of 15-25%. Pakistan recently discovered that it had over 8,000 non-existent state schools, 17% of the total. Sierra Leone spotted 6,000 “ghost” teachers, nearly a fifth the number on the state payroll."

So, regardless of an existing public schooling system, we can see that results are very poor in many regions. The establishment of a schooling system outside the bureaucracy of the government could improve efficiency. Also specialized schools could be built, by area of interest or focusing. This schooling system I am referring to is still public to the final customers (the students and their parents), but privately financed. With the attraction of capital specific to schooling activity, and private management, it would be much easier to control that the money is actually being put to productive uses. As described in the article, the government itself and unions oppose this system, which has produced fantastic results when applied correctly. Schooling is the final solution to inequality and poverty. In "Education and the Knowledge Based Economy"[3] I describe how the world is moving from industrial societies to knowledge economies. This must give hope to underdeveloped nations, which with minimal investment (consider, what is USD 1 a week?? Nothing!!), can provide fantastic results.

See in the following article "Extreme Poverty Has Dropped in Half Since 1990" [4] how half of the population in Africa has left extreme poverty in the last 15 years. When starting so low, it is very easy to grow at fast pace. We are not speaking here of taking the least developed  nations to become developed economies, but of the eradication of extreme poverty worldwide, which is doable in the NeXT 15 years. (see "The world has an astonishing chance to take a billion people out of extreme poverty by 2030") [5]. A more functional schooling system financed by the richest nations (as well as a better healthcare system), is the best way to help Africa with concrete action, by eliminating the middle man. And not make it so that everything depends on the governments, who also pursue their own interests and many times do not offer the long term vision to solve structural issues. Where the government fails, the private sector must ACT. Even if that refers to education, an area usually associated with the public sector.

---

[1] http://thenobeleconomist.blogspot.no/2016/03/akamasoa-and-most-successful-economic.html

[2] http://www.economist.com/news/leaders/21660113-private-schools-are-booming-poor-countries-governments-should-either-help-them-or-get-out

[3] http://thenobeleconomist.blogspot.no/2016/05/education-and-knowledge-economy.html

[4] http://priceonomics.com/extreme-poverty-has-dropped-in-half-since-1990/

[5] http://www.economist.com/news/briefing/21578643-world-has-astonishing-chance-take-billion-people-out-extreme-poverty-2030-not

Education and the Knowledge Economy

Education and the Knowledge Economy

What is a knowledge economy? If other sectors of the economy are composed of agriculture, a so called primary sector, manufacturing, a secondary sector, and services industry as a terciary sector, the knowledge economy bases itself in education and human capital. We are talking about big investments in education, creation of knowledge and research institutions that makes it possible for the country to raise the standard of living in the long term. Examples are Israel, which moved from production of oranges and kiwis to high-tech products such as Google’s autosuggest; Korea which now produces well-known brands like Samsung and Hyundai; costa Rica, which is home to Intel’s semi-conductor industry.

Now what is needed to produce such transformation? 1. Large scale systems in the country’s education 2. Investment in research institutions 3. Private sector should closely cooperate with universities, so that professors work in the areas that have economy potential making it more likely that discoveries can be transformable into marketable products and lead to economic growth. History shows that this transformation can take from 20 to 30 years. However, some stages of development can be skipped shortening the process. However, the key is to invest in education to make this happen.

A Knowledge based economy is an economy of knowledge focused on the production and management of knowledge. It requires individuals to have adaptive and creative thinking to develop solutions to societies problems. It is an open source economy of ideas that invent the future state for a better more sustainable world.

According to Peter Drucker, Knowledge workers are workers whose main capital is knowledge. Typical examples may include software engineers, physicians, pharmacists, architects,engineers, scientists, public accountants, lawyers, and academics, whose job is to "think for a living". When I think about professionals, I think about doctors. Would you not prefer to have the best doctor available in town and be done with your health issues right away, instead of paying a cheap doctor and having to go into additional treatment of never resolving the problem in the first place? It seems logical, but it does not seem to apply for any branch. In the business branch, many would go for the cheapest.

Knowledge-focus as the third wave of human socio-economic development. The first wave was the Agricultural Age with wealth defined as ownership of land. In the second wave, the Industrial Age, wealth was based on ownership of Capital, i.e. factories. In the Knowledge Age, wealth is based upon the ownership of knowledge and the ability to use that knowledge to create or improve goods and services. Product improvements include cost, durability, suitability, timeliness of delivery, and security. Using data in the Knowledge Age, 2% of the working population will work on the land, 10% will work in Industry and the rest will be knowledge workers.

In a knowledge based economy, customers pay for knowledge. What do you know that others don’t? Consider the article “5 Major Ways Freelancer will change the economy by 2040”. As the economy turns towards a knowledge economy, there will be many changes in the job market. 1. A career will consist of many short-term assignments, as opposed to 30 years in the same company. 2. The rise of platforms to manage everything from you daily life, to job searching, child care, training and education programs, etc. 3. Talent agencies will blossom to direct people’s careers. 4. The growth of small businesses will boost wages 5. The individual will be responsible for their own success. 

Reality is changing at a rapid pace than ever. From a period of Industrialization, where Capital was the Key, to knowledge. Under industrialization, you needed an office, a factory, a physical place to produce. In the world of today, you don’t need a heavy investment to start a company. You can start if from home, and then expand to an office when you already have a flowing stream of income. This apparently is not fully understood by most. When they have a good idea for a product, most entrepreneurs rent office space without testing the market. The concept of virtuality is not something people grasp. The knowledge economy involves acquiring a unique knowledge, and then selling it as a service.

Specialization is important, but a solid educational background is more. By having a strong university education, it is easy to deepen and navigate different areas within your field. Whereas in the past information was restricted, now it is too abundant. This is a major change of paradigm. Before, information was only available in the form of books, which very sometimes hard to get hold of. I am not speaking of 100 years ago, I am saying 15 years ago. For example, in Argentina, books in English were only available in specialized stores. Now, you can have almost any book delivered home by using services like amazon. The same with products: cheap and high quality merchandise can be bought at E-bay with minimal transportation cost. This is of course generating much more business for some, but also cutting the middle man (and his commission). Having global reach is also very easy. Were as before books were aimed at a local market, launching a digital book and going global is a piece of cake (the book you are reading now is a good example of this). This means that you can now have global reach from the comfort of your home. This works out perfectly for people who live in low-cost countries, who can very easily make the same salary or more than they would in a regular job by working online.

Youtube, Netflix and related video channels are also a game changer. Consider that today you don’t need a TV to keep yourself informed. You can navigate through movies, TV series or documentaries from all imaginable subjects whenever you want. You can also have immediate access to information with specialists in your field. And you can also specialize in a field and post your own videos, blogs, comments, publications… Freedom of expression is as strong as ever. This works very well for developing nations, who will find it very easy (and cheap) to catch up. It does not work so well for developed nations though, who might find that the picture of the world they were sold (a Cold War picture, based on political interests), is not really so close to reality as they thought. The age of knowledge also means that a lot of information that was before hidden by governments is finally coming out. Like the fact that the Latinamerican region was restrained in it’s development due to the fact that it was a victim of the “Cold War”, a fact very little known in developed nations.

Huge changes await us in the near future, where they will be a re-alignment of world power. It is very difficult to say which countries will position themselves higher, or will be the most favoured by this changes. It is clear that there will be winners and losers. But whatever happens, it is clear to me that being highly educated will be more and more important, and valued by the market. Whereas before you had to work for a company, you will now be able to acquire, package and sell the most expensive commodity of all: knowledge. A new era of awakening is here, the age of philosophers is back. And a better more developed and inclusive world for ALL.

  

Sources

http://www.fastcompany.com/3049857/the-future-of-work/5-major-ways-freelancers-will-change-the-economy-by-2040

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_worker

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_economy

Technology in Ancient Civilizations: the Romans

Technology in Ancient Civilizations:

 the Romans

Ancient Rome[1] spread from 753 BC to 476 AD and is said to have begun when the twins Romulus and Remus who were raised by wolves founded a city on 7 hills. It started in Italy, but then spread through Southern and Western Europe, Asia Minor, North Africa and parts of Northern and Eastern Europe. It took over the Greek Empire, both societies and cultures together called the “Greco-Roman world”. Roman civilization shifted from a monarchy to a classical republic and then to an autocratic empire. At the heart of their democratic system was the Senate, a body of legislators chosen from a group of elite families. The main job of the Senate was to set policy for the Councils. Rome was divided into 2 classes: the Patricians and the Plebeians.

The Romans have contributed greatly to modern government, law, politics, engineering, art, literature, architecture, technology, warfare, religion, language and society. They achieved great accomplishments in technology and architecture, such as an extensive system of aqueducts and roads, as well as large monuments, palaces and public facilities. The native language of the empire was Latin, based on Etruscan alphabet which in turn was based on Greek. Art and music were also based on the Greek. They prayed to the Roman Gods, which were similar to the Greek gods; Jupiter took the place of Zeus. Christianity was in the beginning resisted, but became the official religion of the empire in 313 under the rule of emperor Constantine I.

The Romans were experts in citizen rights. The Citizen Law was the body of common laws that applied to Roman citizens, while the “Law of Nations” applied to foreigners and their dealings with roman citizens. The Roman was a multicultural empire. Some of the people that were absorbed when conquering regions were enslaved, but others were absorbed into the military. After many years in service, they were allowed to retire and become free man, full right citizens. This allowed the Empire to expand rapidly. This made then very different from the Greek, who did not offer a way to escape slavery. The basis of Western Civilization’s Civil Rights was created under Roman rule, and is still it’s major root and influence today.

They were also pioneers of the Welfare System, which has existed since Roman times. These included measures that subsidized food, education and other expenses for the needy. A program called “alimenta” helped feed, clothe and educate orphans and poor children. Other items such as corn, oil, wine, bread and pork could be collected by the use of tokens.

The Colosseum[2] was completed in 80 AD under the reign of Titus. It symbolized the power, the engineering and the wealth of Ancient Rome. It was a round 360-degree theatre, and set a new standard for Roman design. It had 110 drinking fountains and 2 restrooms. It even had a retractable roof for hot days, to shade the viewers from the Sun. For 100 days Romans flocked to the Colosseum to see the spectacle. 5000 animals were slaughtered in a single day, thousands of gladiators and prisoners left as corpses; all for the sake of entertainment!!! Not only gladiator events took place; they also reproduced large naval battles in the middle of the arena with battleships on water! The Colosseum was full of water channels for flooding the arena. Below the arena laid cages for the wild animals, gladiators preparing for the show, condemned criminals in cages. When the games began a trap door in the arena floor would open, and by a system of pulleys and elevators would take the gladiators to the arena. The Gladiators would fight against other gladiators, against convicted criminals, against animals, etc. The Emperor would decide who got to live and who got to die, but be careful with challenging the Emperor!!! Check out a typical battle in the Colosseum, in the following movie scene from the movie Gladiator:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YbBiXPVKuTA

They Romans have left us fantastic lessons in many fields:

1. Architecture: they built amphitheaters that were large and open stadiums used for events, like chariot races, animal fights and gladiatorial combat. Their aqueducts were used to carry water all over the Empire. Water was carried from natural and artificial reservoirs to cities, where they were used for public fountains, baths, and sewers. Public baths were present in every city throughout the Empire. They were the first to notice the potential of arches, and used them in the construction of bridges. Concrete paved the empire, while the sewer system was ahead of it’s time.
2. Medicine: Roman doctors used many tools that modern surgeons use today, such as scalpels, bone drills, forceps, and surgical laws. They disinfected the instruments in hot water before used them, pioneering antiseptic surgery. They also had access to many herbs and chemicals. They also used medical herbs like sage, garlic, and willow. They established the military medical corps that was one of the first dedicated field surgery units.
3. Military Strength: 50% of the taxes went to military, making this the strongest military civilization in history. Their campaigns stretched over 1300 years reaching all the way to Iran. Roman armies have acted as a source of revenue for the State, by plundering conquered territories, some historians describing the Roman Economy as a plundering economy. They incorporated the new regions into the Empire, absorbing their culture and their technology as well.
4. Technological advances: the Abacus was the first pocket calculator, and was used mainly by merchants, engineers and tax collectors. Writing in scrolls was replaced by the Roman Codex, which is the basis for format for modern books. Lighthouses were a navigational aid that warned sailors when they were approaching the shoreline. Hero of Alexandria invented the first steam engine called aeolipile; it did not have any practical application but would pave way to what came later. They introduced the Solar calendar which is the now familiar calendar with 365 days and 12 months.    

The Western Roman Empire[3] fell in 476, as Germanic migrations and invasions overwhelmed the capacity of the Empire to assimilate the migrants and fight off invaders. The Eastern Roman Empire continued to exist though, also known as the Byzantine Empire. The Roman empire left us with fantastic advances in manufacture, trade, and architecture, literature, written law, and science. The Middle ages saw the loss of many of these advancements, which would later be rediscovered.  The Romans were surely the most advanced civilization in history, their spread so vast that they left their mark in all corners of the world. Mankind has nurtured from them, and studied them for centuries. They will never be replaced, and will always be there to teach us valuable lessons.

---

[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Rome

[2] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colosseum

[3] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire

Technology in the Middle Ages

Technology in the Middle Ages

The Middle Ages[1] spread from the 5^th to the 15^th century, took place between the Roman Empire and the Renaissance and are also called the “Dark Ages”.  Medieval Europe had less trade, fewer cities and less cultural output than the original Roman Empire. London and Paris did not have a sewage system and was hundreds of years behind other places like Mohenjo Daro in the Indus Valley Civilization[2] or Rome. Instead of having centralized governments Europe in the Middle Ages had Feudalism, a political system based on reciprocal relationships between lords who owned lots of land and knights who protected the land. The lords also responded to other lords, the most important being the King. Below the Knights were peasants who did the actual work on the land, in exchange for protection from bandits and other threats. Feudalism was an economic system with the peasants working the land and keeping some of the production to feed themselves while giving the rest to the land owner. There was no freedom or social mobility: a peasant could never become lord. Europe was at the time dominated by superstition and religious debates.

Meanwhile in the Islam world the Umayyad Dynasty had spread from the Middle East to Northern Africa an all the way to Spain. The Muslims eventually took over the Arabs in 750 AD. They were very open to foreigners and their ideas. Arabic replaced Greek as the language for commerce and religion and also culture, poetry and literature although Persian remained as an important language. Baghdad was the capital and center of scholarship with it’s House of Wisdom and immense libraries. The Canon of Medicine[3] became the standard textbook for medicine both for Europe and the Middle East. They developed algebra. The Muslims in Spain were fantastic architects rivalling the Romans, building aqueducts, mosques and buildings. They also increased the yields of their crops and plantations. However, in 1000 AD the Islamic Empire slowly was reduced to a series of smaller Kingdoms losing power until they were conquered by the Mongols in 1258 AD.

Let us also integrate China into this historical period. The Tong dynasty made China more of a meritocracy and ruled over 80 million people, their borders touching that of the Islamic Empire. They produced incredible art that was traded all throughout Asia, and they also saw the rise of poetry. By the 11^th century was producing so much Iron as Europe would be able to produce in the 18^th century!!! Iron was put to use to boost productivity in agriculture which led to population growth. Porcelain was such high quality that it was shipped throughout the world.

Now let us discuss the advances of the Middle Ages, both in Europe and the Islamic world.

1. Medieval Castles: they were fortified structures built in Europe during the Middle Ages by nobility. As opposed to palaces, which were used for residence purposes, castles were used for defense purposes. The nobles used them to control the area immediately surrounding them. They also served as centers of administration and symbols of power.

2. Agricultural: 3 field rotation, heavy plough, horseshoes, horse collar, artesian well and wheelbarrow.

3. Time and navigation: mechanical clock, hourglass, astronautical clock, compass, traverse board, stern mounted rudders.

4. Industrial: tidal mills, blast furnace, vertical windmill, spinning wheel, watermill, flash lock and pound locks, water wheel, cloth factory, paper mill, rolling mill, horizontal loom.

5. Weapon: cannon, longbow, counterweight tre-bucket, steel crossbow, plate armor, chain mail, flail.

6. Knowledge: Arabic numerals, universities, mechanization of printing press, algebra.

7. General: spectacles, chess, mirrors, oil paint, quarantine, weighing scales, buttons, magnets, soap.

---

[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages

[2] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization

[3] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Canon_of_Medicine

Technology in Ancient Civilizations: the Greek

Technology in Ancient Civilizations: 
the Greek

The Minoan Civilization grew up on the island of Crete pre-dated the Greek. In 2600 BC people on Crete were working with bronze and gold. 2000 BC they developed system of writing. And by 1700 – 1450 BC they reached their height and dominated Aegan area. They were seafaring traders, exporting wines, honey and olive oil in Egypt, Asia Minor and Syria. They built magnificent palace at Knossos a small city. By 1450 BC the civilization declined due to earthquake and volcanic that from mainland invaded Crete. The Mycenaean Civilization took it’s place and were the first reminiscent of The Ancient Greek[1] which were surely one of the most influential civilizations in history. Hellenistic civilization spread towards the Middle East with the conquests of Alexander the Great over the Middle East and far into Asia after his death in 323 BC. All in all, the Greek spread from 1700 - 300 BC. They were a seafaring people: they traded with other countries around the Mediterranean. Their cities were founded around the Black Sea, North Africa, Italy, France and Spain. Architecture, philosophy, literature, you name it!!! Poets, Mathematician, Architects, and Philosophers founded a culture that we are still identified with. Ancient Greek philosophy focused on the role of reason and inquiry, and had great implicancies on modern philosophy. The main influencers were Plato and Socrates. They introduced us to many ideas like democracy. The Greek lived in city states, which consisted of a city and it’s surrounding area. These featured some sort of slavery and citizenship was limited to males.

Consider our picture of the Greek: the philosophers. However, in the city of Athens, between 40% and 80% of the population were slaves. Not everyone in Greece could enjoy a life of freedom and full-right citizen, this being more the exception than the norm. Only free, land owning, native-born men could be citizens and were entitled to the full protection of the law. The slaves[2] or duolia were mainly used to work in agriculture or in mines, and were paid for their services. They were not allowed to participate in politics, this being a privilege reserved to the citizens. Education was wide spread, and Greek was a widespread language. Homer wove ancient tales of gods and heroes into epic poetry. Some of his work included the Iliad and Odyssey. The Acropolis was in ancient times the political and religious center of the city. It was where philosophy was debated, and government conducted. Religion occupied a central role in Greek tradition. They prayed to the twelve Olympians, Zeus being their God.

The Greek were the most advanced preindustrial economies in the world. The most common jobs were politicians, generals, secretaries, clerks, accountants, blacksmiths, scientists, carpenters, masons, metalsmiths and shipbuilders. Transportation was carried on by ship and mule. They handled perfumes, copper, ivory, gold, carpet, olive oil, silver, tin, slaves, timber and fish. Large-Scale Farming was not possible. There were city-states because the land was divided by mountains. Greece was not yet unified as a country. Since they were surrounded by water, they created a large naval force. There were many fisherman and they could trade easier with other countries because they were close to the sea.

Their technology was very developed. They were brilliant astronomers, and had discovered that the Earth was round. They used hand-held plows fitted with iron blades, they were pulled by oxen or mules. They used hydraulic cylinders, pumps, machine tools, gears and even some bases of computer sciences: the letters of their messages could be coded in two bits. They loved art, beauty, music theater and poetry. They studied the physical laws that govern music, investigating around and studying harmony. Let us see some example of their technological advances[3]:

1. Robots: Philo built an automation where birds were singing near an owl, but stopped as soon as the owl periodically turned to them. A robot-servant poured wine first, then water, and stopped when you withdrew your cup. The first vending machine gave the visitor a measure of holy water when he inserted a coin.
2. Entertainment: automatic theaters were created, with self-opening doors. Stage machinery added special effects like the descent of characters from the sky, scenery changes and movable carts.
3. Musical instruments: music was a major art. They had organs, wind, string and percussion instruments. Pythagoras and Ptolemy defined the rules of musical harmony, scales and pitches.
4. Technology in everyday life: they used different types of cranes, pulleys, winches and capstan hoists, block and tackle systems. They had water mills but also used a special type with an horizontal turbine, suited for fast flows of small rivers. As weapons, they invented siege engines throwing arrows (catapults) and balls. The repeater crossbow was the first machine gun! The designed a steam canon, and their siege towers were 9 floors tall. Their heavy merchant ships were turned into fine and fast galleys. To measure time, they devised small portable sundials which could work under 4 different latitudes, or the water clock, which worked as well as an alarm clock.
5. Technology applied to science: problems were solved by using rulers and compasses, but when this did not work they built devices to seek solutions. The “Antikythera Mechanism” was the first astronomical analog computer in the world. Astronomical observation instruments were created to record the precise position of the stars. The circumference of the Earth was calculated by Eratosthenes with less than 2% error of margin. Hipparchus discovered that the Sun was much larger than the Earth. However, they believed that the planets and the Sun orbited around the Earth, and not the opposite. This was only challenged 1500 years later.

They also built great aqueducts, like the Tunnel of Eupalinos[4]. And Hippocrates[5] is considered the Father of Western Medicine. Ancient Greece can be considered the birth place of Western Civilization. For over 1000 years the Greek devised the most advanced technological feats the world had ever seen. They were also prone to war and conquest. They were thinkers, creators, innovators. In the end, they would be absorbed by the Roman Empire, who built and thrive upon Greek culture. They took their architectural design and creations and built upon them. We will get to that later.

---

[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greece

[2] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Greece

[3] http://www.anticopedie.fr/download/technologies-gb.pdf

[4] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel_of_Eupalinos

[5] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocrates

What is Technology?

What is Technology?

The word Technology[1] was first used by Jacob Bigelow in 1829, to discuss the application of sciences to the useful arts. It can also be defined as “knowledge and skills available to any human society”. Technology is a broad term that refers both to artifacts created by humans, such as machines, and the methods used to create those artifacts. Technology can be used to refer to a way of doing something or a means of organization. Technology is created by humans, tools, machines and appliances: methods of doing something. Humans find problems in life, then they create a solution. As needs change, humans develop and build on old designs. Technology is everything created by humans, and not by nature.  

Technology did not always mean Ipods, DVDs and the Internet. For thousands of years, it was the means by which people secured food and shelter, established social orders, shaped and sustained the cultures. Technology has shaped the way people thought and interacted throughout history, in both a local and national sense. We can consider the appearance of the first signs of technology 50.000 ago, with the use of tools that many archaeologists connect to the emergence of modern languages. The earliest stone tools appeared 40.000 years ago. Fire was controlled by the Homo Erectus about 500.000 years ago. Other technological advances involve clothing and shelter. The New Stone age (known as Neolithic period) includes the invention of stone axes which were used for forest clearing. These lead to the appearance of agriculture as an important change in the lives of people, and an important technological advance. Although agriculture was much more difficult than hunting at first, growing dependence on it allowed ancient societies to build more stable settlements, that could support more people.

The Neolithic Revolution was a means for people to acquire food, which changed the behavior pattern of our cave cultures and better helped them to sustain themselves. By 3000 BC, some groups of Southwestern Indians had already begun to grow corn. The rise of agriculture allowed these people to form permanent settlements. Metal tools replaced the stone, which eventually led to the discovery of bronze and brass (4000 BC). Iron and steel date to 1400 BC.

The Egyptians introduced the first complex technological advances, such as the use of wind power in the sailboat. They also used the flood from the Nile to irrigate their lands. The wheel was invented around 4000 BC, in the Mesopotamia region. The oldest wooden wheel in the world was found in the Ljubljana marshes of Slovenia. The use of the wheel as a transformer of energy (through water wheels, windmills and treadmills) revolutionized the application of nonhuman power sources.

This small introduction leads us to understand that the word “Technology” is misused, or misrepresented. When we think of technology we think mainly about Information Technology. The Internet, Computers, the Iphone, Ipad… You would never imagine the wheel to be technology, but in fact it represented one of the major technological innovations in history!!! NeXT, a recount of historical technological developments will help us understand better the world that we are living in today.

  

---

[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology

Change Hard: Why Corporations Rise and Fade

The world is changing rapidly. The Fourth Industrial Revolution involves a switch from Big Corporations to a scenery dominated by small business owners. “Change Hard: Why Corporations Rise and Fade” will take you through the last 100 years of Management Theory. With this generic background, it will be easier to understand basic concepts such as Motivation, Leadership, Culture and Team Building in order to succeed in International Business. 

Three examples from real life in Corporations will show you how Directors, Middle Management and Employees will systematically resist change to protect their own interests. Unable to Innovate and lost in their own sea of politics, bureaucracy and inefficiency, few corporations resist the test of time. Entrepreneurs conquer those markets that Corporations fail to capture, introducing Disruptive Innovations that in the end destabilize the Giants themselves. Welcome to the Digital Revolution, the Age of Entrepreneurs!!

Get it HERE:

http://www.amazon.com/Change-Hard-Corporations-Rise-Fade-ebook/dp/B01E7DA9O2/ref=sr_1_21?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1460568921&sr=1-21&keywords=change+hard